Меню Главная Случайная статья Настройки Участник:Saaska/Песочница2 Материал из https://ru.wikipedia.org Альд Мануций (1449/1450 – 6 февраля 1515) — латинизированная форма имени Aльдо Мануцио, итальянского печатника и книгоиздателя эпохи Возрождения. Альд вошел в историю книгоиздания как автор многочисленных нововведений, оказавших большое влияние на развитие типографского дела. Содержание 1 Биография 2 Классические древнегреческие тексты 3 Классические римские тексты 4 Нововведения 5 Проект «Мануцио» 6 См. также 7 Ссылки 8 Notes 9 Определение при помощи тригонометрической окружности Биография Мануций родился в г. Бассиано или г. Сермонете, в современной провинции Латина, примерно в 100 км к югу от Рима. Получил обычное для того времени классическое образование, изучал латынь в Риме у Гаспарино да Верона и греческий в Ферраре у Гварино да Верона. В 1482 поселился в городе Мирандола у своего друга и соученика Джованни Пико делла Мирандола. Там Альд жил два года, занимаясь в основном древнегреческой литературой. Возможно, именно Пико устроил назначение Альда учителем своих племянников, Альберто и Лионелло Пио, принадлежавших к княжескому роду города Карпи в Модене. Впоследствии Альберто Пио предоставил Альду средства на создание типографии и выделил ему земельный участок в Карпи. Педагогическая деятельность Альда оставила материальные следы в виде двух составленных и изданных им грамматик: латинской и греческой. Классические древнегреческие тексты Интерес к античной культуре, характерный для эпохи Возрождения, определил популярность греческого языка в Италии того времени. Приток грекоязычных беженцев после падения Византии обеспечил итальянцам учителей языка, однако остро ощущалась нехватка греческих книг. Альд решил посвятить себя спасению памятников древнегреческой литературы от дальнейших потерь. До него существовало только три издания классических древнегреческих текстов: Эзоп, изданный Бонусом Аккурцием в Милане около 1480 г., а также изданные под редакцией Деметрия Халкондила Гомер (1488 г.) и Исократ (1493 г.). Во всех трех использовался греческий шрифт Деметрия Дамиласа. Около 1490 г. Альд перебрался в Венецию, где в библиотеке св. Марка имелось богатейшее собрание греческих манускриптов. Кроме того, в Венеции существовала многочисленная греческая диаспора. Вскоре вышли «Геро и Леандра» Мусея, «Галеомахия» и греческий Псалтырь. Они не датированы, однако известно, что это первые издания Мануция. Альд собрал вокруг себя множество греков — от ученых, изучавших манускрипты и писцов, In Venice, Manutius gathered an army of Greek scholars and compositors around him. His trade was carried on by Greeks, and Greek was the language of his household. Instructions to typesetters and binders were given in Greek. The preface to his editions were written in Greek. Greeks from Crete collated manuscripts, read proofs, and gave models of calligraphy for casts of Greek type. Not counting the craftsmen employed in merely manual labour, Manutius entertained as many as thirty of these Greek assistants in his family. His own industry and energy were unremitting. In 1495 he issued the first volume of his edition of Aristotle. Four more volumes completed the work in 1497–1498. Nine comedies of Aristophanes appeared in 1498. Thucydides, Sophocles, and Herodotus followed in 1502; Xenophon's Hellenics and Euripides in 1503; Demosthenes in 1504. It is possible that during this period, in his printing works, Hieromonk Makarije was educated, who would later found the Obod printing works of Cetinje and print the first book in Serbian and Romanian[1]. The Second Italian War, which pressed heavily on Venice at this time, suspended Manutius' labours for a period. But in 1508 he resumed his series with an edition of the minor Greek orators; and in 1509 appeared the lesser works of Plutarch. Then came another stoppage when the League of Cambrai drove Venice back to her lagoons, and all the forces of the republic were concentrated on a life or death struggle with the allied powers of Europe. In 1513 Manutius reappeared with an edition of Plato, which he dedicated to Leo X in a preface eloquently and earnestly comparing the miseries of warfare and the woes of Italy with the sublime and tranquil objects of the student's life. Pindar, Hesychius, and Athenaeus followed in 1514. At the end of his life he had begun an edition of the Septuagint, the first to be published; it appeared posthumously in 1518. These complete the list of Manutius' prime services to Greek literature. But it may be well in this place to observe that his successors continued his work by giving Pausanias, Strabo, Aeschylus, Galen, Hippocrates, and Longinus to the world in first editions. Omission has been made of Manutius' reprints, in order that the attention of the reader might be concentrated on his labours in editing Greek classics from manuscripts. Other presses were at work in Italy; and, as the classics issued from Florence, Rome or Milan, Manutius took them up, bestowing in each case fresh industry upon the collation of codices and the correction of texts. Классические римские тексты Nor was the Aldine press idle in regard to Latin and Italian classics. The Asolani of Bembo, the collected writings of Poliziano, the Hypnerotomachia Poliphili, Dante's Divine Comedy, Petrarch's poems, a collection of early Latin poets of the Christian era, the letters of the younger Pliny, the poems of Pontanus, Sannazaro's Arcadia, Quintilian, Valerius Maximus, and the Adagia of Erasmus were printed, either in first editions, or with a beauty of type and paper never reached before, between the years 1495 and 1514. For these Italian and Latin editions, Manutius had the elegant type struck which bears his name. It is said to have been copied from Petrarch's handwriting, and was cast under the direction of Francesco da Bologna, who has been identified by Panizzi with Francia the painter. Manutius' enthusiasm for Greek literature was not confined to the printing-room. Whatever the students of this century may think of his scholarship, they must allow that only vast erudition and thorough familiarity with the Greek language could have enabled him to accomplish what he did. In his own day, Manutius' learning won the hearty acknowledgment of ripe scholars. To his fellow workers he was uniformly generous, free from jealousy, and prodigal of praise. While aiming at that excellence of typography which renders his editions the treasures of the book-collector, he strove at the same time to make them cheap. His great undertaking was carried on under continual difficulties, arising from strikes among his workmen, the piracies of rivals, and the interruptions of war. When he died, bequeathing Greek literature as an inalienable possession to the world, he was a poor man. In order to promote Greek studies, Manutius founded an academy of Hellenists in 1502 under the title of the New Academy. Its rules were written in Greek. Its members were obliged to speak Greek. Their names were Hellenized, and their official titles were Greek. The biographies of all the famous men who were enrolled in this academy must be sought in the pages of Didot's Alde Manuce. It is enough here to mention that they included Erasmus and the Englishman Linacre. In 1505 Manutius married Maria, daughter of Andrea Torresano of Asola. Torresano had already bought the press established by Nicholas Jenson at Venice. Therefore Manutius' marriage combined two important publishing firms. Henceforth the names Aldus and Asolanus were associated on the title pages of the Aldine publications; and after Manutius' death in 1515, Torresano and his two sons carried on the business during the minority of Manutius' children. The device of the dolphin and the anchor, and the motto festina lente, which indicated quickness combined with firmness in the execution of a great scheme, were never wholly abandoned by the Aldines until the expiration of their firm in the third generation. Нововведения Aldus Manutius created the italic typeface style, for the exclusive use of which for many years he obtained a patent, though the honour of the invention is more probably due to his typefounder, Francesco Griffo, than to him. However, he did not use his italic typeface for emphasis as we do today, but rather for its narrow and compact letterforms, which allowed the printing of pocket-sized books. He is also believed to have been the first typographer to use a semicolon. [2] Manutius produced a publication of Virgil's Opera in Venice, in 1501. This publication was the first octavo volume (much like the present day pocket-book) produced. Manutius wanted to create a book format that gentlemen of leisure could easily transport. It also introduced the use of italic script, the narrowness of which allowed for more economical use of space (more words per page, fewer pages, lower production costs). This publication was also produced in higher than normal print runs (1,000 vs the usual 200-500 of the time). He was also publised the First Book on the Principles of Punctuation in the year 1566 Проект «Мануцио» Manutius' name is the inspiration for Progetto Manuzio, an Italian free text project similar to Project Gutenberg. См. также Printing Aldine Press History of typography Aldus (typeface) — a typeface created by Hermann Zapf and named after Aldus Manutius. Aldus — software company named after Manutius that created PageMaker for the Apple Macintosh. Ссылки Эта статья (раздел) содержит текст, взятый (переведённый) из одиннадцатого издания «Британской энциклопедии», перешедшего в общественное достояние. Lowry, Martin J.C. The World of Aldus Manutius: Business and Scholarship in Renaissance Venice. — Oxford : Blackwell, 1979.  Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). Aldus Manutius . Catholic Encyclopedia (англ.). New York: Robert Appleton Company. Notes Slobodan and Miodrag Nedeljkovic: Графичко обликовање и писмо Lynne Truss, Eats, Shoots and Leaves, Gotham Books (2004). ISBN 1-59240-087-6. p. 77. Определение при помощи тригонометрической окружности Пусть на плоскости задана прямоугольная система координат с началом в точке ${\displaystyle O}$ и с осями ${\displaystyle {OX}}$ и ${\displaystyle {OY}}$. Возьмём в этой системе координат окружность с центром в точке ${\displaystyle O}$ и радиусом, равным единице (эта окружность называется тригонометрической). Углы будем откладывать на окружности от оси абсцисс против часовой стрелки. Точнее, произвольному углу ${\displaystyle \alpha }$ сопоставим точку ${\displaystyle M}$ на окружности следующим образом. Начав с точки (1,0), пройдем по окружности путь длины ${\displaystyle |\alpha |}$ против часовой стрелки в случае ${\displaystyle \alpha \geqslant 0}$, и по часовой стрелке в случае ${\displaystyle \alpha <0}$. За точку M, соответствующую углу ${\displaystyle \alpha }$ примем конец этого пути. Синусом угла ${\displaystyle \alpha }$ называется ордината точки ${\displaystyle M}$. Так как длина отрезка ${\displaystyle {OM}}$ равна ${\displaystyle 1}$, то для острых углов это определение согласуется с данным в предудыщем пункте, ${\displaystyle \sin \alpha ={MA}.}$ Косинусом угла ${\displaystyle \vartheta }$ называется отношение абсциссы точки ${\displaystyle A}$ к длине отрезка ${\displaystyle {OA}.}$ Обозначают ${\displaystyle \cos \vartheta ={\frac {OC}{OA}}.}$ Так как длина отрезка ${\displaystyle {OA}}$ равна 1, то ${\displaystyle \cos \vartheta ={OC}.}$ Тангенсом угла ${\displaystyle \vartheta }$ называется отношение ординаты точки ${\displaystyle A}$ к абсциссе точки ${\displaystyle A}$. Обозначают ${\displaystyle \operatorname {tg} \,\vartheta ={\frac {AC}{OC}}}$ (в англоязычной литературе ${\displaystyle \tan \vartheta ).}$ Так как ${\displaystyle {AC}=\sin \vartheta }$ и ${\displaystyle {OC}=\cos \vartheta ,}$ то ${\displaystyle \operatorname {tg} \,\vartheta ={\frac {\sin \vartheta }{\cos \vartheta }}.}$ Котангенсом угла ${\displaystyle \vartheta }$ называется отношение абсциссы точки ${\displaystyle A}$ к ординате точки ${\displaystyle A}$. Обозначают ${\displaystyle \operatorname {ctg} \,\vartheta ={\frac {OC}{AC}}}$ (в англоязычной литературе ${\displaystyle \cot \vartheta ).}$ Так как ${\displaystyle {AC}=\sin \vartheta }$ и ${\displaystyle {OC}=\cos \vartheta ,}$ то ${\displaystyle \operatorname {ctg} \,\vartheta ={\frac {\cos \vartheta }{\sin \vartheta }}.}$ Котангенс равен обратному значению тангенса: ${\displaystyle \operatorname {ctg} \,\vartheta ={\frac {1}{\operatorname {tg} \,\vartheta }}.}$ Секансом угла ${\displaystyle \vartheta }$ называется отношение длины отрезка ${\displaystyle {OA}}$ к абсциссе точки ${\displaystyle A}$. Обозначают ${\displaystyle \sec \vartheta ={\frac {OA}{OC}}.}$ Так как длина отрезка ${\displaystyle {OA}}$ равна 1, то ${\displaystyle \sec \vartheta ={\frac {1}{OC}}.}$ Секанс равен обратному значению косинуса: ${\displaystyle \sec \vartheta ={\frac {1}{\cos \vartheta }}.}$ Косекансом угла ${\displaystyle \vartheta }$ называется отношение длины отрезка ${\displaystyle {OA}}$ к ординате точки ${\displaystyle A}$. Обозначают ${\displaystyle \operatorname {cosec} \,\vartheta ={\frac {OA}{AC}}}$ (в англоязычной литературе ${\displaystyle \csc \vartheta ).}$ Так как длина отрезка ${\displaystyle {OA}}$ равна ${\displaystyle 1}$, то ${\displaystyle \operatorname {cosec} \,\vartheta ={\frac {1}{AC}}.}$ Косеканс равен обратному значению синуса: ${\displaystyle \operatorname {cosec} \,\vartheta ={\frac {1}{\sin \vartheta }}.}$ Из определения следует: если косинус угла равен нулю, то тангенс и секанс этого угла не существуют. Аналогично для котангенса и косеканса: если синус угла равен нулю, то котангенс и косеканс этого угла не существуют.