For contributions to the knowledge of carbohydrate metabolism, which clarify the action of insulin in diabetes.

For bacteriological research in parasitology.

For fundamentally modifying our knowledge of viruses and the inheritance of characteristics by viruses.

For achievements in explaining the physiology of vision in man.

For the development of immunochemistry.

For the discovery of the urea and citric acid cycles, which are basic to our understanding of how the body converts food into energy.

For the discovery of actomyosin, the essential contractible element of muscle.

For the cultivation of the viruses of poliomyelitis, mumps, and measles.

For contributions leading to the control of hyperthyroidism.

For contributions to the understanding of cardiovascular physiology.

For fundamental contributions to our understanding of the mechanism of blood clotting and for the development of methods for the improved treatment of thromboembolic conditions.

For pioneering studies of the biochemical components of connective tissues, contributing to new understanding of arthritis and rheumatic diseases.

For contributions to knowledge of the heart and the circulation, and for the development of the first practical ballistocardiograph.

For contributions concerning the basic mechanisms of hypertension.

For development of original methods for pure culture of living mammalian cells as a basis for new research in their nutrition, growth, genetics, and mutation.

For the discovery of the fundamental role of nucleic acid in the reproduction of viruses and in the transmission of inherited characteristics.

For contributions concerning the causes of cancers, the source of antibodies, and the mechanism of blood cell generation and destruction in human beings.

For the development of the fluorescent method of labelling proteins, a significant tool for the study of infection in human beings.

For the development of immunization procedures against diseases such as tuberculosis, rabies, and poliomyelitis.

For the design, construction, development, and perfection of the electron microscope.

For revealing the structure of the DNA molecule.

For laying the foundation for research in human genetics; and, specifically, to Dr. Neel for his work on thalassemia and sickle cell anemia.

For the identification and isolation of six hormones of the anterior pituitary gland.

For the countercurrent distribution technique as a method for the separation of biologically significant compounds, and for the isolation and structure studies of important antibiotics.

For fundamental contributions to our knowledge of the relationship between cancer and cancer-producing DNA and RNA viruses.

For determining the chemical structure of an amino acid transfer RNA.

For contributions to the electron microscopy of biological materials.

For extraordinary contributions to biochemical pharmacology.

For deciphering the genetic code.

For basic discoveries in the field of developmental biology.

For a new concept and a new method for the synthesis of polypeptides and proteins.

For the discovery of cyclic AMP and elucidation of this key chemical mechanism that regulates hormonal action.

For their brilliant contributions to molecular genetics.

For the discovery of leukemia- and cancer-inducing viruses in mammals, and the elucidation of their biology and epidemiology.

For contributions that laid the foundations for the chemotherapy of cancer.

For contributions to molecular biology including techniques of molecular hybridization and the first synthesis of an infectious nucleic acid.

For contributions to the biology of RNA-containing cancer viruses and elucidation of the mode of action of viral genes.

For contributions to the creation of a new medical discipline, immunopathology.

For expanding our knowledge of the interplay between the hypothalamus and the endocrine system.

For the development of the technique of radioimmunoassay.

For isolating and elucidating prostaglandins.

For identifying the relation of the opiate receptors to the naturally occurring enkephalins.

For demonstrating the specific structure of the enkephalins and the identification of their natural origin.

For contributions to the knowledge of brain function, and the understanding of mental and psychosomatic diseases.

For the development of new techniques for the rapid sequencing of DNA.

For historic achievements that made recombinant DNA a brilliant reality, and inaugurated a new age of biomedical promise.

For the discovery that certain genetic elements are not static, but can move from one location to another on DNA.

For the discovery that oncogenes are present in normal cells.

For contributions to the first identification and characterization of the protein products of oncogenes, thus providing a clearer understanding of cell growth and regulation.

For demonstrating how RNA tumor viruses cause cancer, and elucidating their role in combining, rescuing and maintaining oncogenes in the viral genome.

For the discovery of the first human RNA tumor virus and its association with certain leukemias and lymphomas.

For the application of cell biology techniques to the study of behavior, revealing mechanisms underlying learning and memory.

For original discoveries that illuminate the brain’s ability to perceive and organize information and to translate sensory impulses into behavior.

For fundamental research into the genetics of immunoglobulin molecules, paving the way for the development of hybridomas.

For creating the first hybridomas, a powerful new scientific tool for producing monoclonal antibodies.

For the discovery of the basic mechanisms controlling cholesterol metabolism, opening the way to a new pharmacologic approach to the treatment of coronary heart disease, the leading cause of death in the Western world.

For the original concept that cell growth is governed by protein molecules, and for the discovery of Nerve Growth Factor (NGF).

For discovering and biochemically defining Epidermal Growth Factor (EGF), which illuminated the dynamics of cell growth.

For imaginative studies of somatic recombinations in the immune system, detailing in molecular terms the genetics of antibody diversity.

For brilliantly demonstrating that the DNA responsible for antibody production is routinely reshuffled to create new genes during the lifetime of an individual.

For revolutionary research revealing the enzymatic role of RNA, opening a new universe in molecular biology.

For revelations regarding the ability of RNA processing to convert DNA’s massive store of genetic data to biological use.

For research revealing how IP3 governs the intracellular level of calcium and orchestrates the major activities of the cell.

For the discovery that G-proteins carry signals that regulate vital processes within cells.

For the discovery of protein phosphorylation and the mechanistic understanding of protein kinase enzymes.

For the discovery that carcinogens trigger cell growth by activating protein kinase C.

For fundamental research on the Bithorax Complex, which established the role of homeotic genes in the development of cell patterns and provided a foundation for current studies of embryonic development.

For charting new paths in developmental biology through investigations that led to the discovery of nearly all genes responsible for organizing basic body patterns.

For landmark discoveries concerning the processes by which intercellular proteins are targeted across cell membranes.

For of the discovery of prions, a new class of infectious agents—opening the way to under-standing baffling neurodegenerative diseases.

For the discovery of the Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) restriction of T-cell recognition.

For pioneering the isolation of class I and class II MHC proteins and their peptide complexes.

For seminal discoveries in antigen processing and MHC-peptide binding which deciphered the biochemical basis of T-cell recognition.

For visualizing the three-dimensional structures of class I and class II proteins and their complexes with antigens and superantigens.

For discoveries concerning the endo-thelium-derived relaxing factor (EDRF), now known to be nitric oxide, a signaling molecule in the cardiovascular system. For the ingenious elucidation of the cyclic GMP signaling pathway of nitric oxide and for essential discoveries that led to establishing the link between endothelium-derived relaxing factor and nitric oxide.

For elegant and incisive discoveries leading to the understanding of how regulatory proteins control the transcription of genes.

For pioneering genetic and molecular studies that revealed the universal machinery for regulating cell division in all eukaryotic organisms, from yeasts to frogs to humans.

For elucidating the functional and structural architecture of ion channel proteins, which govern the electrical potential of membranes throughout nature, thereby generating nerve impulses, and controlling muscle contraction, cardiac rhythm, and hormone secretion.

For the discovery and recognition of the broad significance of the ubiquitin system of regulated protein degradation, a fundamental process that influences vital cellular events, including the cell cycle, malignant transformation, and responses to inflammation and immunity.

For the development of a powerful technology for manipulating the mouse genome with exquisite precision, which allows the creation of animal models of human disease.

For discoveries revealing the universal molecular machinery that orchestrates the budding and fusion of membrane vesicles—a process essential to organelle formation, nutrient uptake, and secretion of hormones and neurotransmitters.

For pioneering studies on eukaryotic RNA polymerases and the general transcriptional machinery, which opened gene expression in animal cells to biochemical analysis.

For the discovery of the superfamily of nuclear hormone receptors and elucidation of a unifying mechanism that regulates embryonic development and diverse metabolic pathways.

For ingenious experiments that first identified a stem cell—the blood-forming stem cell—which set the stage for all current research on adult and embryonic stem cells.

For discoveries concerning nuclear reprogramming, the process that instructs specialized adult cells to form early stem cells—creating the potential to become any type of mature cell for experimental or therapeutic purposes.

For discoveries concerning the cell’s protein-folding machinery, exemplified by cage-like structures that convert newly made proteins into their biologically active forms.

For discoveries concerning cytoskeletal motor proteins, machines that move cargoes within cells, contract muscles, and enable cell movements.

For discoveries concerning the molecular machinery and regulatory mechanism that underlie the rapid release of neurotransmitters.

For discoveries concerning the unfolded protein response — an intracellular quality-control system that detects harmful misfolded proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum and signals the nucleus to carry out corrective measures.

For the discovery of the pathway by which cells from humans and most animals sense and adapt to changes in oxygen availability – a process essential for survival.

For discoveries concerning the nutrient-activated TOR proteins and their central role in the metabolic control of cell growth.

For discoveries elucidating how gene expression is influenced by chemical modification of histones—the proteins that package DNA within chromosomes.

For the discovery of light-sensitive microbial proteins that can activate or silence individual brain cells and for their use in developing optogenetics—a revolutionary technique for neuroscience.

For discoveries concerning the integrins—key mediators of cell-matrix and cell-cell adhesion in physiology and disease.

For the invention of AlphaFold, a revolutionary technology for predicting the three-dimensional structure of proteins.